Disaster-induced displacement in Indonesia is a complex issue. As an archipelagic country with multiple vulnerabilities to disaster, Indonesia has had a long history of dealing with various forms of disaster. The country faced the 2004 tsunami in Aceh, and several volcanic eruptions in many parts of the country, including in Mt. Sinabung in North Sumatera and Mt. Merapi in Central Java. These multiple vulnerabilities to disaster raise a question as to how the Indonesian society and government deal with the inevitable disaster-induced internal displacement.
The authors undertook field research on the aftermath of Mt. Sinabung eruption in North Sumatera in 2018-2019. We found two important issues that shape the practices of internal displacement in Indonesia. The first issue relates to the institutional complexity of disaster responses in Indonesia. The decentralized disaster management system in Indonesia has led to difficulties in implementing national regulations regarding disaster management. Under this system, disaster management is led by the District Government rather than centralized at the national level.
The cultural context also shapes evacuation and post-disaster re-settlement. We found that the local community and faith-based organizations played a role by offering assistance that otherwise would not be provided by the government. [1] The situation in the post-eruption of Mt. Sinabung provides a good example of how cultural aspects play important roles in disaster-induced internal displacement in Indonesia.
Internal Displacement and Disasters in Indonesia
Since 2004, Indonesia has adopted a decentralized mode of governance that supports the autonomy of local governments in managing local affairs, including disaster response measures. There are three levels of disaster management agencies involved in the disaster management process: the national-level disaster management agency (National Disaster Management Agency, BNPB), provincial-level disaster management agency (Regional Disaster Management Agency, BPBD Provinsi), and district-level disaster management agency (BPBD Kabupaten/Kota). The military at each level similarly implements disaster evacuation measures. Unfortunately, this decentralized approach has resulted in fragmented coordination between the BPBD operating under local governments and the BNPB operating under the national government.
The central government has been pointing out the difficulties of the current coordination framework and the potential advantages of a unified approach.
The National Disaster Management Agency has classified three levels of disaster-prone areas in the context of volcanic eruption - also known as "red zones."[2] In addition, the central government has laid out policies to evacuate people - especially people with certain vulnerabilities such as women, children, elderly, and persons with disabilities--if they live in the vicinity of disaster area. The Indonesian government has policies on protecting vulnerable groups during evacuation and post-disaster responses. For example, the guideline for post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction of the Disaster Management Agency mentions the importance of socio-psychological recovery as part of rehabilitation process as well as sustainable reconstruction process.[3]
Eruption of Mt. Sinabung, North Sumatera
Mt. Sinabung is one of the active volcanoes in Indonesia, and part of the active "ring of fire" in the archipelago.[4] It is located in Tanah Karo, a district in North Sumatera Province. When the first eruption occurred in 2010, one person was reportedly killed.[5] Between 2013 and 2014, successive waves of eruptions occurred, triggering further displacement. The 2013 eruption killed fourteen people and three others were injured due to pyroclastic flows while visiting the exclusion zone established by the authorities. The eruption led to the displacement of 18,166 people, who were returned home after the disaster.[6]
Moreover, eruptions recurred in 2016 and 2017 that displaced at least 7,266 people. The latest eruption on 6 April 2018 caused an earthquake and pyroclastic flows in the disaster-prone areas. The disaster status has been raised to the highest alert Level IV since 2015 but lowered back to Level II in May 2019. This level has since been updated reflecting further development of the volcanic activities, with the current report (as of February 2023) showing the area of the mountain with Level II.[7]
After the first eruption in 2010, Karo District government responded by establishing an emergency response task force, coordinated directly under the District Head's office.[8] A new District Head's decree was enacted to establish an emergency response team in 2013 following the increasing activity of Mt. Sinabung, with the command function of emergency response and operation directed under the Commander of District Military Unit. The military was responsible for coordinating emergency response and process of evacuation, while Karo District's Department of Social Affairs is responsible for logistics preparation. [9]
Culture of Internal Displacement in Post-Eruption Mt. Sinabung
Our research identified two internal displacement practices in Sinabung, namely, the persistence of independent evacuation in which persons affected by the disaster voluntarily relocate through community organizations, rather than under the strictly commanded measures by the government, and the important assistance after the disaster by faith-based organizations.
After the 2018 eruption, two schemes of evacuation and relocation process were established. The first was government-led evacuation--through the Local Military District--for residents within the "red zone area." This evacuation process targeted people with direct vulnerabilities in the disaster area. The second was independent evacuation activities by the residents themselves prior to the disaster or the village-led collective activities. The government acknowledged this practice and put "independent relocation scheme" as part of post-disaster response.
The practice of "independent evacuation" in Sinabung is entangled with social-cultural practices that make the village community and family as the central actors in the everyday social practice. Even though the government has attempted to lead the evacuation process, particularly during the "big" eruption, families and the local community in the villages would take the responsibility of managing their own evacuation and relocation.
As a consequence of this "independent evacuation," local governments faced difficulties in prioritizing the needs of vulnerable groups, including persons with disabilities. Our research found a lack of attention given to the families with disabled members in the relocation area. Informants recalled that the government did not provide any special care or treatment for persons with disabilities. Instead, the special care was provided by a pastor from the local church. The church plays a role after the evacuation in delivering aid and giving assistance to internally displaced persons in the temporary relocation sites.
Our research points out the important role of faith-based organizations in Mt. Sinabung area, including Caritas PSE Foundation, Alpha Omega Foundation and the Muhammadiyah Disaster Management Centre. Caritas PSE Foundation is a faith-based Catholic organization under the Archdiocese of Medan - North Sumatera. Caritas PSE distributed materials directly through several programs, namely, risk reduction, emergency response and post-disaster recovery. During the Mt. Sinabung eruption, Caritas PSE and the Catholic Church actively distributed aid and provided space in their church in nearby villages and towns (such as Kabanjahe). They also offered free medical services to address health and sanitation issues relating to displacement in collaboration with three Catholic hospitals (Harapan Hospital in Pematang Siantar, Elizabeth Hospital and Sari Mutiara Hospital in Medan).
Another faith-based organization, Alpha Omega Foundation - a social wing of Gereja Batak Karo Protestan, has provided support to the people affected by the Mt. Sinabung eruption. Alpha Omega Foundation runs a special school and organizes activities including rehabilitation and habilitation for both persons with disabilities and their family members. The Department of Social Affairs in Karo has endorsed the role of Alpha Omega in educational and social empowerment activities in the local community. More specifically, it offered several programs (including a community-based rehabilitation program called Rehabilitasi Berbasis Masyakarat[10]) to persons with disabilities in Karo in order to help them live independently and skilfully and carry out their social functions appropriately.
As the second largest Muslim organization in Indonesia, Muhammadiyah established the Muhammadiyah Disaster Management Center (MDMC) which plays a significant role in coping with disaster management and mitigation in Indonesia. MDMC operates at all levels and across Indonesia including in Karo District. MDMC was actively involved in mitigation, preparedness, emergency response and rehabilitation during the Mt. Sinabung eruption. MDMC sent their volunteers to participate in evacuation and post-disaster activities including psychosocial assistance to children and the elderly in the temporary shelter. Since 2014, MDMC has also cooperated with several international organizations in managing post-disaster recovery programs, such as training to support the recovery of livelihood, including restoring agriculture-based livelihood and improving the capacity of micro and small enterprises in Siosar (permanent shelter).[11]
Faith-based, non-state organizations provide an essential complement to the work of the state in ensuring the fulfilment of at least the minimum core of economic, social and cultural rights. But a critical point remains: although the fulfilment of economic, social and cultural rights is supported by faith-based, non-state organizations it remains to be the primary obligation of the state. The state has the obligation to oversee the activities of all actors in disaster situations to ensure that principles of non-discrimination and protection of vulnerable groups are adhered to.
Conclusion
The decentralized disaster response system of Indonesia has affected the protection of members of vulnerable groups, such as persons with disabilities. The central government's (through National Disaster Management Agency) guideline on protecting vulnerable groups during disasters are separate from the different operational guidelines of the main actors (local governments, disaster management agencies at the provincial and district levels and the district military units). Field interviews show that these local actors are not aware of the complex regulations on the full protection of vulnerable groups. In this context, the protection of vulnerable groups depends on the capacity of local actors as well as assistance from the community.
Responding to disaster displacement in Sinabung--as well as in many places around the country--is a social and cultural practice, in which the displaced people play an active role in engaging with, and sometimes resisting, government's policies related to disaster displacement. There is a need to acknowledge that the response to disaster displacement--including evacuation process--is not only a government-led practice, but also a social-cultural practice involving families and community groups and known as "independent evacuation." Therefore, regulatory and policy improvement is required in order to fill the missing gap between government's policies and the social practices. While this social-cultural practice is important in the context of post-disaster responses, there is still a need for strong government efforts that ensure the fulfilment of human rights in the context of internal displacement and for all members of affected communities to enjoy just and equal treatment during disasters.
Ahmad Rizky M. Umar is a Sessional Lecturer at the University of Queensland, Australia. Andika Putra is Assistant Professor in Environmental Law at the School of Law, Universitas Gadjah Mada. He completed an LLM at Maastricht University.
For more information, please contact: Ahmad Rizky M. Umar, School of Political Science and International Studies, University of Queensland, e-mail: a.umar@uq.edu.au or Andika Putra, Faculty of Law, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia, e-mail: andika.p@ugm.ac.id). For more information and publications about the research, please visit https://rwi.lu.se/disaster-displacement/.
[1] Ahmad Rizky Mardhatillah Umar, Ezka Amalia, and Andika Putra, "Indonesia: Human rights, persons with disabilities, and the politics of disaster displacement in post-eruption Mt. Sinabung," in Matthew Scott and Albert Salamanca, editors, Climate Change, Disasters, and Internal Displacement in Asia and the Pacific: A Human Rights-based Approach. Routledge, 2020.
[2] Level I (Normal) is the normal condition without significant volcanic activity. Level II (Waspada) is the the area prone to cold lava, volcanic ash or acid rain and requires people to be relocated to safe places with possibility of return to original settlement if it is deemed safe. Level III (Siaga) is the area prone to lava flow, with high levels of acid rain or hot clouds and Level IV (Awas) is the area most prone to eruption itself. Center for Data and Information, National Disaster Management Agency. Buku Saku Tanggap Tangkas Tangguh Menghadapi Bencana. [Handbook for Resilient, Active, and Responsive Efforts to Deal with Disaster], Jakarta: Indonesian National Disaster Management Agency, 2019, 4th edition.
[3] See Peraturan Kepala BNPB No. 11 tahun 2008 tentang Pedoman Rehabilitas dan Rekonstruksi Pasca-Bencana. [The Head of National Disaster Management Agency Regulation No. 11/2008 on the Guidelines for Post-Disaster Rehabilitation and Reconstruction], Jakarta: Indonesian National Disaster Management Agency, 2008.
[4] Igan S. Sutawidjaja, Oktory Prambada, and D. A. Siregar, "The August 2010 Phreatic Eruption of Mount Sinabung, North Sumatra," Indonesian Journal on Geoscience 8, no. 1 (2013), pages 55-61.
[5] Rohmatin Bonasir, "Ribuan pengungsi Sinabung diminta pulang" [Thousands of Sinabung Internally Displaced Persons are asked to come home], BBC Indonesia, 19 September 2013, www.bbc.com/indonesia/berita_indonesia/2013/09/130919_sinabung_pengungsi_pulang.
[6] Munawar Mandailing, "Pengungsi Korban Erupsi Sinabung 18.166 Jiwa" [There are 18.166 Internally Displaced Persons from Mt Sinabung Eruption], Antara, 21 December 2013, https://sumut.antaranews.com/berita/129314/pengungsi-korban-erupsi-sinabung-18166-jiwa.
[7] Report from Centre of Vulcanology and Mitigation of Geological Disaster (PVMBG), "Sinabung, Rabu - 22 Februari 2023, periode 00:00-24:00 WIB," Multiplatform Application for Geohazard Mitigation and Assessment in Indonesia, (MAGMA) Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, February 2023.
Report from Centre of Vulcanology and Mitigation of Geological Disaster (PVMBG), "Sinabung, Rabu - 22 Februari 2023, periode 00:00-24:00 WIB," Multiplatform Application for Geohazard Mitigation and Assessment in Indonesia, (MAGMA) Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, February 2023.
[8] Puji Lestari, Eko Teguh Paripurno and Arif Rianto Budi Nugroho, "Disaster risk reduction based on community through a contingency plan for Mount Sinabung," Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik 21, no. 3 (2018), page 231.
[9] See Keputusan Bupati Karo No. 361/289/Bakesbang/2013 tentang Penetapan Status Tanggap Darurat Erupsi Gunung Sinabung Kabupaten Karo tahun 2013 [Karo District Head Decree No. 361/289/Bakesbang/2013 on the Emergency Status for Mt. Sinabung Volcano Eruption Disaster Karo District 2013], Kabanjahe: Karo District Government, 2013.
[10] "Pembentukan Pengurus RBM (Rehabilitasi Bersumberdaya Masyarakat) Desa Batukarang" [The Establishment of Community-Based Rehabilitation Board in Batukarang Village], Alpha Omega Foundation GBKP Karo. https://alphaomegagbkp.or.id/in/index.php/15-berita/terkini/35-ulang-tahun-perak-alpha-omega
[11] "Kondisi Erupsi Gunung Sinabung Semakin Mencemaskan," Muhammadiyah Provincial Board, North Sumatera, 13 January 2014, http://sumut.muhammadiyah.or.id/berita-388-detail-kondisi-erupsi-gunung-sinabung-semakin-mencemaskan.html.